Health, Behavior and Optimal Aging Essay Example

Wellbeing, Behavior and Optimal Aging Essay Example Wellbeing, Behavior and Optimal Aging Paper Wellbeing, Behavior and Optimal Aging Paper The creators introduced a Life Span Development Perspective to assist individuals with bettering comprehend the way toward maturing. The encounters and thought examples of people as they amass during that time have a significant effect in their last conduct and mental cosmetics. In the event that these encounters were prepared and disguised well, at that point the maturing people could take part in what the creators call Optimal Aging. The wellbeing of maturing people are breaking down. They no longer have the quality and the energy they used to have. This could turn into the wellspring of discontent and dissatisfaction on the off chance that they can't deal with the way toward maturing. Be that as it may, as they understand the significance of developing old and they relish what they have done as the years progressed, they can keep up positive conduct and evade the negative feelings and disappointments so frequently connected with the way toward maturing. The pace of maturing can likewise be influenced by certain psychosocial factors. The quick condition of the maturing people, for example, the family, the presene of parental figures and the presence of a strong network can assist them with managing the real factors of maturing and they can in any case appreciate the organization of their companions and their family members. Then again, the procedure of ideal maturing can not be managed by an individual alone, it ought to be with the assistance of others. Through ideal maturing, the people experiencing the way toward maturing could appreciate adulthood and the late long stretches of existence without feeling useless. On the off chance that they can participate in physical and social exercises fit to their age, they can live genuinely and joyfully. Reference Aldwin, CM, Spiro, A, Park, CL (2006). Wellbeing, Behavior and Optimal Aging: A Life Span Development Perspective. In Birren, JE Schaei, KW. Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (sixth edn). California: Elsevier Academic Press.

Public, Private and Mixed Goods

Merchandise are tangiable things which fulfill human needs and needs. People discover them significant and attractive so they put forth attempts to procure them. In current economies products are ordered into three fundamental classifications namely,1. unadulterated private products 2. unadulterated open merchandise 3. mixed(quasi/open) products and they are illustrated in the entry beneath. Unadulterated private merchandise These are altogether the products created by privately owned businesses whose point is to make a benefit and they are utilized only for the fulfillment of private requirements for instance food,clothing and property.They are not free goods,they accompany a cost and can't be subbed with different products. One of the highlights of unadulterated private merchandise is that they are created by private firms whose principle point is to make a benefit. These private firms recognize individuals’ private requirements for instance attire and afterward they embrace intreprenuerial exercises to fulfill them while simultaneously winning benefit. Private firms go up against one another so as to get a higher piece of the overall industry and subsequently this outcomes in top notch products being created. The subsequent element is that these products are appropriated in the market against a price.Access to these merchandise isn't free yet infers a cost called a value which the organizations charge on purchasers. The cost is set up by the free exchange of market forces,demand and gracefully. The market unites makers and buyers who are both willing and ready to purchase the merchandise. Unadulterated private merchandise are additionally financed out of private incomes. For the costs which the organizations incur,they pay out of their private supports which are typically the proprietor’s capital and held benefits. When these are not sufficient,they can get some bank advances. These merchandise are likewise excludable.Only those indviduals who pay for them get the chance to devour them. Those without income,with various tastes and inclinations just as those inconsistent with some specialized highlights of the items are denied the opportunity to devour them. Somebody who can't manage the cost of a vehicle may pick open vehicle or bicycles,and thus,he is barred from utilizing the great (vehicle). They are likewise rivalrous. An expansion in the units of products expended brings about an increment in cost. A model is an expansion sought after for bread,for a pastry shop to create the extra portions to meet demand,the expenses of electricity,rent and work will likewise increase.Pure open merchandise These are products delivered and dispersed by state claimed organizations or open foundations whose extension is to give products and ventures in a manner that is both available and reasonable to all. They can be devoured by people or organizations yet don't prompt a decrease in the utilization volume of others for instance road l ighting. Unadulterated open products are created straightforwardly by the administration or private firms under rent. The state sees these as significant and ought to be given to all so it remains the sole supplier to guarantee these are accessible to everybody at low and reasonable prices.An model is equity which is soley given by the legislature. On occasion it rents some private firms to offer some vital types of assistance for instance trash assortment. Not at all like unadulterated private goods,their arrangement is financed out of mandatory duty incomes. These come in various structures for instance personal duty and coperate charge which people and organizations pay separately. This pay is then diverted towards the arrangement of unadulterated open products for instance development of open streets. However,the salary gathered along these lines may not be sufficient so the thing that matters is paid out of the state budget.These products are circulated through the open financi al plan. The legislature recognizes the open needs and makes needs with regards to which ones can be fulfilled first as per the ammount of assets nearby and the significance of specific products to the general population. For example,a spilling sewer pipe in a city perhaps fixed first before developing another street since general wellbeing is increasingly significant. Unadulterated open merchandise are likewise non-excludable implying that no single individual from the general public can be prevented the utilization from securing these products for instance police administrations. Due to this,they remain totally in the hands of the government.Everyone benefits whether they make commitments through necessary assessments and can't deny these utilities. The level of rejection for these merchandise relies upon the specialized highlights and assets accessible to the maker. A model is the administration neglecting to develop a street in a specific area because of lacking development asse ts. The utilization of these merchandise is non-rival,meaning that their expenses don't increment because of an expansion in the quantity of the customers. This comes to fruition since by nature,the items can't be separated for instance national defence.It is beyond the realm of imagination to expect to give safeguard to a specific gathering of individuals and disconnect the rest yet instead,it is by and large appreciated and the expense of giving protection doesn't increment because of an expansion in national populace. Blended (semi open) products Mixed merchandise are the shelter among open and private merchandise. They resemble private merchandise in that they are rivalrous and excludable yet they give critical non-rivalrous non-excludable outer advantages for which inclinations are not uncovered by the market instrument for instance health,education and fire service.Individual proprietorship cases to these products are negligible. An element of blended merchandise is that they are all in all delighted in for instance instruction. At the point when an individual is instructed he gets a profit by this, which is communicated as far as higher income and improved occupation possibilities. Notwithstanding, the network all in all likewise profits by the person's instruction, in that his efficiency is improved, which is useful for everybody. Blended merchandise are additionally created by the administration or potentially by private firms for instance education.The government possesses some instructive organizations at low or zero expenses while others are private and benefit making. The legislature gives the essential training to people and the individuals who need to progress or to get better administrations have than enrole into private establishments and they follow through on a greater expense for the srevices. These merchandise are additionally dispersed through the spending plan or market. For the part which the legislature is liable for producing,it dispe rses them through the state financial plan by methods for organizing open needs and directing the assets available.It additionally looks to guarantee that they are given at reasonable costs. Privately owned businesses likewise convey products as indicated by their own private assets and they do this through the market. Blended merchandise are additionally financed from sales’ incomes and other income creating exercises. Private firms get their pay from deals turnover and they use it to deliver more merchandise and enterprises. However,government parastatals may have lower incomes since their costs ought to be low and moderate to all except if in the event that they privatize or rent to privately owned businesses.

Blackness in Cliffords Blues Liberating or Imprisoning - Literature Essay Samples

For many African Americans post-American slavery, and especially post World War I, Europe was a place widely talked of as a utopia for young black men. Historical figures from fugitive William Wells Brown to Dubois, from Frederick Douglas to Mary Church Terrell, and from Claude McKay to James Baldwin, described places such as London, Paris, and Berlin as havens for the African American. Places where their identities as black men didn’t inhibit their chances at success, a much different sense of hope and security was offered in Europe than in their own country, the United States of America. For several black artists, the uprising in popularity of Jazz music transformed their lives for the better. Musicians were invited to cities like Paris and Berlin to perform openly for widely accepting white audiences. Post World War I was a time where parts of black identity, rooted in Jazz music, was an attribute that gave African Americans a chance in Europe that they didn’t have b efore. Fast-forward to the rise of Nazism in Germany, and suddenly the desire to be a part of the European world as a black man is thwarted when the harsh reality of discrimination wedges its way into the everyday lives of Europeans. John A. Williams’ novel, Clifford’s Blues,depicts fictional journal entries of a homosexual black American Jazz musician in Berlin during the 1930’s. Finding himself at one time at the top of his own identity as a black queer in Berlin, Clifford is then suddenly thrust into a concentration camp, prisoner at the hands of an SS officer named Dieter Lange. In the first few chapters of this novel, John A. Williams shows us that identity being an African American, an African American Homosexual male, and being an African American Homosexual male who plays jazz music is a complicated, chain and key identity that shifts in and out of being imprisoning and liberating for the black man at the hands of a white nation. John A. Williams employs several tactics in his writing to convey to the reader the importance of the identity of the narrator, Clifford, and how that affects the way in which the world perceives him, how he perceives himself, and how he himself perceives the world he has suddenly been thrust into. Perhaps most importantly, however, is the way in which Williams uses Clifford’s identity to manipulate how we as readers perceive Clifford. At the very beginning of the novel, Clifford is already imprisoned, and begins describing to the reader who he is and how he came to be arrested: â€Å"I’m an American Negro, and I play piano, sometimes, and I’m a vocalist, too.† (Williams, 12). Notice here how Clifford does not mention his queerness or the fact that he plays jazz music specifically, only that he is an American Negro who plays the piano. This paints subconsciously, in the readers’ mind, a picture of a victimized Negro from the 1930’s who probab ly has done nothing wrong, and finds himself imprisoned. It is important to note that Williams decides to omit this information initially (though he quickly gets to the point about who Clifford really is), because during the time period this novel takes place, the more specific parts of Clifford’s identity, apart from the black skin we see on the outside: being queer and being a Jazz pianist and vocalist, are incriminating, taboo characteristics in Nazi Germany. In fact, the entire first entry of Clifford’s journal shows a desperate tone that contradicts notions that Europe is a place of haven for black people at this time. Clifford even dares to say:â€Å"As soon as I do get out, I’m hauling ass back home. I don’t care what it’s like. They never did this to me in New York†¦ I’d even go back South to get out of here. Any place but here.† (Williams, 13) To a modern reader, the idea that Clifford Brown is in peril so great that he is desperate enough to go back home to the lynching, Jim Crow South in America triggers such an alarm, that we begin reeling off in our heads with questions about just how bad Clifford’s situation is, and also what he possibly could have done to get into it. Williams’ use of punctuation and diction really underscores the desperation Clifford feels in the novel. Frequent short sentences interspersed between sentences with longer clauses that are separated by commas convey a conversational voice of the narrator that displays sincerity, vulnerability, and relatability to the reader. Williams is convincing the reader that they are about to read a set of journal entries that are raw, real, and without the pretentious air of a more stylized form of fiction writing. It is this tactic that Williams uses to weave Clifford’s identity into the world around him. Williams’ writing style isn’t completely omitted for the sake of conversational authenticity, however. Figurative language and metaphors are the primary tools he uses to create the world of Clifford as he sees it, rooted in who he is. The next time the reader encounters the queer aspect of Clifford’s identity, Clifford is describing what he was doing when he was arrested in Berlin. Clifford states his belief that being an American would get him out of the situation, as being a diplomat got Malcom, his lover at the time, out of the arrest. However, Malcom takes Clifford’s passport, his official documentation of his identity, rendering him â€Å"like [he] don’t exist† (Williams, 14). This is symbolic of Clifford no longer having an identity in Europe as an American citizen, but suddenly being labeled as a rogue black queer that plays degenerate music. Clifford goes on to write: â€Å"But I was somebody in Berlin. At least I thought I was†¦ If Almighty God walked into Hitler’s office without signing in, then as far as the Germans are concerned, He did not walk in.† (Williams, 14)These quotes highlight two very important elements of the novel onset: one, Williams is blatantly uncovering the massive misconception that Europe is a place of sanctuary and openness for black Americans. â€Å"But I was somebody in Berlin. At least I thought I was†, underscores the lie that many blacks at the time entered Europe believing: that no matter what, Europe’s treatment of black people was not as bad as America’s. This simply is not the case. Another instance of commentary on this subject is when Clifford states: â€Å"Living in Europe, being considered a strange, exotic creature, gave me†¦ a sense of being important, and that made me†¦ fall into this snake pit.† (Williams, 17). Especially during Nazi Germany, identification was the crucial element that could get a person imprisoned or promoted to SS general. Soldiers marching the streets were in constant demand for identification papers to separate Jews, blacks, queers, and other untouchables from the preferred German citizens. Williams’ metaphor of God walking into Hitler’s office further strengthens the importance of identity to the Germans. If God himself is rendered non-existent due to the absence of papers, a black American man in Berlin is no more than a black American man in the Jim Crow South. In fact, being an American does absolutely nothing for Clifford when it comes to his arrest, imprisonment, and assignment of a triangle. The one thing that â€Å"saves† him from experiencing the concentration camp is the fact that Dieter Lange, a pimp who’d often watch Clifford perform in Berlin before the Nazi takeover, is an SS officer who takes Clifford aside and assigns him to be his own personal prisoner. This is because Dieter Lange knows Cliff is a queer, and wants to abuse him sexually in the privacy of his home: â€Å"†¦ Here he was now, getting into a car and telling me to hurry because he wanted to fuck me good.† (Williams, 18) Interestingly enough, Cliff’s homosexuality gets him sent to Dachau in the first place, but saves him from the intense physical labor of the concentration camp. Either way, in the scheme of things, Clifford’s homosexuality is a shackling identity in Nazi Germany. In the prison assigning scenes, Williams plays with labeling of identity through the metaphor of the shaving, the uniforms, and the triangles. In the shaving scene, Cliff describes the floor, which is covered in hair from all of the prisoners: â€Å"The floor was inches thick with hair—black, brown, gray, blond, white, straight, curly.† (Williams, 16). This is an image Williams uses to depict the metaphoric shedding of identity that the Nazis forced onto their prisoners. In this room, everyone who wasn’t the ideal was stripped bare of what was irrevocably theirs: their hair. The Europeans have decided to take Clifford, a queer, black American man, and strip him to his core, only to reassign him to what they deem fit. Dieter Lange, who had been standing in the same room, gives Clifford a Green triangle. This is not a triangle that is designated for queers, which is pink, but instead, it is a triangle that identifies Clifford as Dieter Lange’s personal prisoner. After this, Clifford is given a uniform to put on: â€Å"The uniform smelled and did not fit, and the SA were kicking me.† (Williams, 17). Williams is painting a clear pic ture of identity here. The hair is symbolic of true identity being stripped away, the triangles are false identities being assigned to prisoners by the European Nazis, and the clothes are, in Clifford’s case, a mask that doesn’t fit, much like the green triangle is a mask that does not fit Clifford’s true, pink-triangle-queer self. Europe is covering up what this black man truly is, and is parading him around as its own personal prisoner. In many cases within this novel, John A. Williams subtly places symbolic imagery to convey the underlying struggle of identity for Clifford. At this early point in the novel we are now understanding of the idea that Clifford’s identity as a black queer male is the catalyst for his arrest, therefore making this identity an imprisoning aspect of himself both literally and figuratively. However, even deep within his circumstance as Dieter Lange’s personal neger, which is not so distantly similar to house slaves in America, the musician part of Clifford’s identity serves as a personal release from his day to day realities. Williams brings the musical part of Clifford into the story by describing what Clifford sees as analogous or similar to musical jargon or experience. For example, on page seventeen, just after Clifford is shaved, given a triangle, and clothed in uniform, he is ordered to go with the captain: â€Å"There was a pause like there is just before your fingers come down on the keys, like just before you sing your first note†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This extended simile actually is significant to interpr eting Clifford’s own personal identity affiliation. As noted previously about the beginning text of the novel, Williams omits Clifford’s queerness when he introduces himself, but instead focuses on what cannot be changed and is obvious: his blackness, and also what Clifford himself has closely taught himself to do: his piano playing. The fact that Clifford is able to liken even this terrible situation he is in to that of his profession of being a musician shows that Clifford’s own musical identity, not that of what the world perceives him as or what he perceives the world to be, is closely tied to who he sees himself to be. We learn a lot about a character from the way they speak about the world and the way they walk through their environment, and because this novel is formatted as a series of journalistic recounting of traumatic events, Williams calls back to Clifford’s identity by authentically viewing the world through the eyes of a musician who loves what he does. It also shows us that of the three major elements of Clifford’s identity: being black, being queer, and being a musician, being a musician is the one personal choice Clifford has made in his life. The other two features about him are what gets him into trouble, and when he speaks of his queerness for the first time in the novel to God, he desperately cries out, â€Å"I didn’t choose to be this way, Lord†¦ forgive me for what I am. If I could stop right now, I would, but it’s not left just to me anymore.† (Williams, 19). However, whenever he discusses music or playing the piano, it is genuine and euphoric almost. Another early instance of Williams using musical imagery as a liberating tool for Clifford’s identity comes when Clifford describes running away: â€Å"I think about running away†¦ so near, so far. Like a blues.† (Williams, 20). Describing the distance of Switzerland from Dachau depresses Clifford, yet he makes the connection between his situation and blues music. When finally given the opportunity to play the piano Dieter Lange acquires, Clifford releases himself into a place outside of his reality. In fact, Clifford, while singing a love song to himself at the piano, describes the experience with a tone of freedom: â€Å"When I started, my fingers were tight, bunched up at the knuckles, but the more I played, the looser they got.† (Williams, 27). Williams uses this scene to actually show the reader the affect being a musician has on Clifford. The looser his hands get, the freer the music flows and the calmer he feels. He even reflects on the fact that many love songs are heterosexual songs, and begins to reminisce about his own love life: â€Å"only person I think I ever loved was that strange fellow, a writer from Rocky Mountain country.† And blackness: â€Å"the blacker the berry, the sweeter the juice.† Although his relationships ended more bitter than sweet, the action of playing music ties all of Clifford’s identities into one stream of consciousness, as though playing the piano is the only time he is able to fully see himself. Ultimately, in the first few chapters of Clifford’s Blues, readers are given a sense of what parts of Clifford Brown’s identity work to his disadvantage: being black, and being queer. However, Williams, through diction, punctuation, and metaphoric language, paints a liberating part of Clifford’s black identity through musical expression, performance, analogy and experience. No matter what, when the oppressive power of white Europe tries to strip away a black man’s identity, only to abuse and use that identity for their own benefit, there is always a part of him that will stay true and will help him find hope in his darkest hours.

The Missing Aspects of An Utopian Society in The Giver by...

The Missing Aspects of An Utopian Society Envision a society of order and perfection: no danger, no pain, and no war. All the communities are closely bonded together and there is no fear for the future. Peace and order surrounds the world, and everyone is blinded by this utopian country, inhibiting the true clear vision needed. Though it seems perfect, many of humanity’s rights must be taken away in order to attain and stabilize this hierarchy. Simplistic aspects in the world like vivid colors, beautiful music, and passionate love have been stripped from the population leaving everyone empty and blind. In The Giver by Louis Lowry, the utopian community is questioned and ultimately has to be destroyed by a true hero, Jonas, who sacrifices in order to give humanity back the human rights. By removing love, colors, and music, the community was able to gain control over pain and conflict; but as seen in Lowry’s book, this perfection has its price and has its consequences on the population causing lack of knowledge o f the outside world, the lack of knowledge of the past, and lack of experience of the choices made. The community lives like blind mice, unknown to any knowledge of the outside world. This causes the population to be inhibited in achieving the hero’s journey. In this community, not much is known of the world beyond where they live, and no one questions what is out there. An example of what is unknown to the community is when, â€Å"†¦an unidentified aircraft had overflown

Case Study Anemia - 927 Words

Case Study 1: Anemia Situation: The client is a 77 – year – old widow who relies on her late husband’s savings for all her expenses. Over the past few years, she has eaten less and less meat because of her financial situation and the trouble of preparing a meal â€Å"just for me†. She also has medicines to buy for the treatment of hypertension and arthritis. Over the past 2 to 3 months, she has felt increasingly tired, despite sleeping well at night. When she goes to the clinic, the doctor orders blood work. The lab results are as follows: WBC 7.6 thou/cmm, Hct 27.3%, Hgb 8.3 mg/dl, platelets 151 thou/cmm. RBC indices are mean corpuscular volume 65 cmm, mean corpuscular hemoglobin 31.6 pg, MCH concentration 35.1%, red cell distribution width†¦show more content†¦client to have more or meet the iron needs some of the food that they can include in their meal without a high cost would be: vegetables such as broccoli, beans or meat product such as red meat and fish and ot her fruits such as watermelon orShow MoreRelatedCase Study: Anemia913 Words   |  4 PagesCase Study 1: Anemia Situation: The client is a 77 – year – old widow who relies on her late husband’s savings for all her expenses. Over the past few years, she has eaten less and less meat because of her financial situation and the trouble of preparing a meal â€Å"just for me†. She also has medicines to buy for the treatment of hypertension and arthritis. Over the past 2 to 3 months, she has felt increasingly tired, despite sleeping well at night. 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Typically, anemia refers to low red blood cell counts, but aplastic anemia patients have lower counts of all three blood cell types:  red blood cells,  white blood cells, and  platelets, termed  pancytopenia. ------------------------------------------------- [edit]Signs and symptoms * Anemia  with  malaise,  pallor  and associatedRead MoreEssay on Case Study726 Words   |  3 PagesRunning head: CASE STUDY #1 Case Study #1 Ms. A presents to the ED with complaints of lightheadedness, dysmenorrhea and menorrhagia for the past 10-12 years, with an elevated heart and respiratory rate, temperature of 98 ° F, and decreased blood pressure. She states that she takes 1000mg of aspirin every three to four hours for six days during menstruation, and also during the summer months to relieve stiff joints to play golf. 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In order for tetrahydrofolate (THR) to be able to participate in the de novo synthesis of DNA building blocks, it needs to be regenerated from dihydrofolate (DHR). Regeneration of THR requires DHR to be reduced by the enzyme DHFR. Hence, a deficiency in DHFRRead MoreIron Deficiency And Its Effects1648 Words   |  7 Pagessystem, which is involved in selective memory, spatial, and working memory (Lozoff B, 2011). This refers back to the experiment done by Carpenter KLH et al. on basal ganglia. They studied the basal ganglia of children of children from a longitudinal study and found that the iron in the basal ganglia affected the children’s spatial intelligence, if they were deficient in iron. Iron deficiency can affect multiple cognitive functions, such as memory, attention, and motor control. Due to iron’s role inRead MoreLab Report On Biochemical Assessment880 Words   |  4 PagesAssignment: Biochemical Assessment Paper Copy Due in Lab Week of September 12 Submit Electronic Copy on Safe Assign in Blackboard REFERENCES TO USE: Nelms Textbook - Appendix E and assigned readings Read the Case Study posted on Blackboard. Questions #1 to #9 pertain to the Case Study. 1. Define the following terms: - pancytopenia: deficiency of red cells, white cells, and platelets in the blood - parathesias: a prickly or tingling sensation known as â€Å"pins and needles† as a result of pressure

Brief On The Code Of Hammurabi Essay free essay sample

, Research Paper Brief Look at the Code of Hammurabi In his place as King of Babylonia, Hammurabi managed to form the universe # 8217 ; s first codification of Torahs and set up Babylon as the dominant and successful Amorite metropolis of its clip. # 8220 ; Records written on clay tablets show that Hammurabi was a really capable decision maker and a successful warrior. His regulation spanned from 1792 BC to 1750 BC When he became king in 1792, he was still immature, but had already become entrusted with many official responsibilities in his disposal # 8221 ; ( Grolier ) . In the early old ages of his reign, Hammurabi largely participated in traditional activities, such as mending edifices, delving canals, and contending wars. Yet subsequently in his regulation, Hammurabi organized a alone codification of Torahs, the first of its sort, hence doing himself one of the universe # 8217 ; s most influential leaders. Hammurabi was chiefly influential to the universe because of his codification of Torahs. We will write a custom essay sample on Brief On The Code Of Hammurabi Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This codification consisted of 282 commissariats, consistently arranged under a assortment of topics. He sorted his Torahs into groups such as household, labour, personal belongings, existent estate, trade, and concern. This was the first clip in history that any Torahs had been categorized into assorted subdivisions. This format of organisation was emulated by civilisations of the hereafter. For illustration, Semitic cultures wining Hammurabi # 8217 ; s regulation used some of the same Torahs that were included in Hammurabi # 8217 ; s codification. Hammurabi # 8217 ; s method of idea is apparent in present twenty-four hours societies, which are influenced by his codification. Modern authoritiess presently create specific Torahs, which are placed into their appropriate household of similar Torahs. Hammurabi had his Torahs recorded upon an eight-foot high black rock memorial. Hammurabi based his codification on rules like, the strong should non wound the weak, and that penalty sho uld suit the offense. As for penalty, â€Å"legal actions were initiated under the codification by written pleadings ; testimony was taken under curse. The codification was terrible in its punishments, ordering â€Å"an oculus for an oculus, a tooth for a tooth† ( Grolier ) . These codifications of Torahs were maintained by raising the authorization of the Gods and the province. Although the penalties were different than those of today, the authorization of the province ( authorities ) is similar. Presently, penalties are issued through the province # 8217 ; s jurisprudence enforcement system, comparable to the manner penalty was determined and enforced in ancient Babylon. In the codification, offenses punishable by decease required a test in forepart of a bench of Judgess. Included in these offenses were: bigamy, incest, snatch, criminal conversation and larceny. There were besides Torahs similar to today. For illustration, a hubby who wished to disassociate his married woman, was required to pay maintenance and child support. By making the universe # 8217 ; s first set of organized Torahs, Hammurabi constituted a theoretical account set of moral codifications for other civilisations to double. # 8220 ; The codification of Hammurabi is believed to hold greatly influenced the development of Near Eastern civilisations for centuries after it was written # 8221 ; ( Britannica ) . Although Hammurabi failed to set up an effectual bureaucratic system himself, his thoughts were successful in set uping Torahs in Babylonia. Since Babylon was the universe # 8217 ; s first city, the big population needed to be bound by a rigorous set of organized civil Torahs. The manner Hammurabi constructed his Torahs is influential to the universe today, because Torahs can be more easy understood by the people. Bibliography # 8220 ; Code of Hammurabi. # 8221 ; Encyclopedia Britannica ( 1989 ) , X, 682. # 8220 ; Hammurabi. # 8221 ; Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia ( 1994 ) . # 8220 ; Hammurabi. # 8221 ; Compton # 8217 ; s Encyclopedia ( 1990 ) , XI, 225.

The Atomic Bomb Flashed Above Hiroshima Essays -

The Atomic Bomb Flashed Above Hiroshima Hiroshima is the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture, southwestern Honshu, Japan. Hiroshima has warm, humid summers with July temperatures. Hiroshima caught the attention of the world when a U.S. plane dropped the first atomic bomb on the City, destroying it on August 6,1945. The Atomic bomb blast in 1945 obliterated three- fifths of the city within seconds and killed about 75,000 people. At exactly fifteen minutes past eight in the mourning, on August 6, 1945 Japanese time, at the moment when the atomic bomb flashed above Hiroshima. At the time of the blast:Mrs.Huts Nakamura, a tailors widow stood by the window of her kitchen, watching a neighbor tearing down his house because it laid in path of an air-raid defense free lane . Mrs. Huts Nakamura, who lived in the section called Nobori-Cho got her three children, a ten year old boy,Toshio, an eight year old girl yoke, and a five year old girl, Mohawk out of bed and dressed them and walked with them to the Military area known as the East Parade Ground. There she unrolled some mats and the children laid down on them. They slept until about two, when they were awakened by the roar of the planes going over Hiroshima. As soon as the planes had passed, mars.Nakamura started back with her children. They reached home a little after two-thirty and she immediately turned on the radio, which was broadcasting a fresh warning. She put the children in their bedrolls on the floor, laid down herself at three o'clock, and fell asleep at once. The siren jarred her awake at about seven o'clock, she arose and hurried to the house of Mr.Nakamoto, the head of her neighborhood Association and asked him what she should do. He told her to remain at home unless an urgent warning. The Prefectural Government convinced, everyone in Hiroshima that the city would be attacked. Their house was 1,350 yards or three-quarters of a mile, from the center of the explosion. Timbers fell around her as she landed and a shower of tiles also fell on her; everything became dark and she became buried. She heard a child cry "Mother,help me!" and she saw her youngest child, Mohawk the five year old buried up to her chest and unable to move. As Mrs.Nakamura started Frantically to claw her way toward the baby, she couldn't see or hear anything of her other children. Mrs.Nakamura always was a strong person, she never thought of the worst and always hoped for the best. Here is an example of her strength, Mrs.Nakamura, although she was too ill to walk she managed to return to Hiroshima alone, by electric car to the outskirts, by foot from there. Mrs.Nakamura cared for her children and everyone else. Her attitude was always pushing for the good never wanting to give up. Mrs.Nakamura said,(she needed nothing more to make her give up thinking, in spite of the atomic bomb, that Japan still had a chance to win the war). Mrs.Nakamura helped everyone through this time including herself. Weakness occurred after the bomb had dropped. Mrs.Nakamura, who had suffered no cuts or burns at all, though she had been rather nauseated all through the week she and her children had spent as guests of Father Kleinsorge and the other Catholics at the Novitlate. Mrs.Nakamura began fixing her hair and noticed, after one stroke through her hair, that her comb carried with it a whole handful of hair. Three or four days past, she became bald and began living indoors, practically hiding. Mrs.Nakamura daughter, Mohawk woke up feeling week and tired and they both stayed on their bedrolls. Her son and other daughter, who had shared every experience with her during the after bombing, felt fine. They did not realize it, but they were coming down with the strange, capricious disease which became known as radiation sickness. Mrs.Nakamura laid indoors with Mohawk. They both continued to be sick, Mrs.Nakamura realized that their sickness was caused by the bomb. Mrs.Nakamura was too poor to see a doctor and never knew exactly what the matter was. Without any treatment at All they began to feel better. All the children had lost a little hair but were well. Hiroshima is the capital of Hiroshima prefecture, southwestern Honshu, Japan. The Atomic bomb blast in 1945 obliterated three fifths of the city within seconds and killed about 75,000 people. Mrs.Huts Nakamura, with her ten year old boy Toshio, eight year old girl Yoke, and a five year old girl Mohawk were strong through the whole situation. I chose Mrs.Nakamura because she was a

Failed religion essays

Failed religion essays Religious Authority and its Failures in El, Nazarin, and Viridiana Authoritarianism is defined as a form of government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator. However society sometimes views authoritarianism as misused authority. Valid authority is aligned upon a necessary purpose. Misused authority involves reality control and domination. Metaphorically, it is saying one and one equals three, because authorities say so. The most significant synthesis in promoting authoritarianism by religious scholars was the concept of "Natural Law." It reduces morality subjectivity, which has to be arbitrated by authorities. Natural Law says God implanted moral awareness in minds when people were created, but it became nonfunctional and has to be "awakened" by religion. Being supposedly implanted, it was subjectively created by God, not something objective like one and one equaling two. Since it is subjective and needs to be awakened, it can only be handled by religious authorities that must arbitrate morality. And the problem lies with the religiou s authorities. Religions are failing in its attempt to connect with the people it seeks to help. The most critical point of attack on a culture is its religious experience. Where one can destroy or undermine religious institutions then the entire fabric of the society can be quickly subverted or brought to ruin. (Rokeach 35) In other words, religious authorities have a responsibility towards society who trust and have faith in them and who have placed them on a higher social level. And when there is a broken trust between religious authorities and society, the problem lies solely on the religious authorities. Another problem is the lack of information. Religious authorities are very influential in society, and misguided notions of truth and reality play a big problem in the failures of religion. Lack of information is doubtlessly a serious impediment...

Impact of Structural Adjustment of the World Bank Essay

Impact of Structural Adjustment of the World Bank - Essay Example Structural adjustments are measures formulated to facilitate and accelerate economic development in the targeted economies3. According Ahmed and Lipton structural adjustment police are intended to rectify the structural imbalance in the foreign and public balances2. The policies could be initiated internally by the country concerned or external forces such the World Bank and the international monetary fund. The structural adjustments reforms endeavor to reduce and eliminate the various financial distortions, such as overvalued exchange rate, huge monetary deficits and to restrict inefficient public services that hinder fair distribution of the resources in the economy of particular country1. In general, the structural adjustments are intended to minimize or eliminate the balance of payments and the public sector deficits, with an objective of stimulating high economic growth. In addition, the policies aimed at achieving an appropriate structural change capable of sustaining a robust economic growth and a favorable monetary environment in a particular economy3. One of the major characteristics of the structural adjustments is promoting specialization where the targeted economy is influenced to produce commodities â€Å"tradable† in the global market and reducing factors that enhance production of commodities with no or little economic value, especially in the public domain4. Enhancing the flexibility and adaptability of the targeted economy to the changing global economic environment is an important objective of the structural adjustments. This reduces the effects of adverse global economic changes on the economy of a particular country 3. Structural adjustment policies comprise of measures aimed at facilitating short-term economic stability and long-term adjustments.

Writing as Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Writing as Art - Essay Example This paper highlights that writing campaigns have been in use for many years. Some have been effective while others have not. However, they serve the same purpose of educating and spreading the message, they want done. The paper will discuss writing as art, and the way writing campaign has used to protest social problems. Writers develop words, make them true, emphasize, and illuminate the words through images. Through the voices, they hold the reader’s attention and remind them of the changing tones of speech. Through the stories heard and told, they indicate the way the writer’s thoughts are molded by the narrative, how the writer shapes the lives and thoughts of others and their lives. There are features that are used to identify writing as a form of art, and they have a strong impact on the readers and writers. These features include world, story, image, and voice. Without these elements or components, the practice of writing would become disadvantaged. From this discussion it is clear that story entails structure, and meaning of the structure. Stories are narrated by voices developing images; voices also create and inhabit worlds. A writer who stays close to the character voices has more opportunities of going into the rhythm of living, of engaging the readers in that rhythm, for readers to feel that they know it by themselves. The utilization of thinking and speaking voices in writing seems to be the main quality, perhaps the most significant skill for the writer to learn. However, if the writers think about it, the voices that capture our attention are those that generate images, tell stories, and make the world real to the readers as their own. Writing as art assists us to determine the images, stories, worlds, and voices individuals inhibit and which inhabit writers, in other words, the acquired culture.

Amadou Diallo Essay Example for Free

Amadou Diallo Essay Social cognition is the study of how people form attribution or judgments about themselves and the social world from the social information they received from their environment (Chapter Review, 2010). However, it was discovered often marked by apparent errors and biases. People make quick judgment based on their past experiences, hence at times leading to tragic endings. The Amadou Diallo case study was an example of the tragic error which was made by four New York City Police officers. The police shooting of an unarmed man was an act of automatic inferences which happens when people use mental shortcuts to simplify the amount of information they receive from the environment. Automatic thinking is known as the thinking that is unconscious, unintentional, involuntary and effortless (Taylor, Peplau, Sears, 2006). While, schemas are mental structure people use to arrange their information regarding the social world around themes or subjects: schemas affect what information we notice, think about, and remember (Chapter Review, 2010). During the incident February 4, 1999, Carroll had made a low-effort automatic thinking with schemas when Diallo reached into his jacket to get his wallet by assuming that Diallo was reaching for a gun in his pocket, and shouted â€Å"Gun! † to alert his colleagues. Officer Carroll’s action was due to his natural instinct or response as most criminal would reach into their pocket for gun during the detection of police officers. He had use schemas to form an expectation of the event in which made him to expect a gun pulling out of Diallo’s jacket rather than his wallet. As he attends to his schema-consistent knowledge: criminals would pull out guns from their jacket when they spotted police officers; his schemas filtered out any inconsistent information: Diallo reached in his jacket to get his wallet; had caused the NYPD officers to fire at Diallo. Besides that, there are also a few theories or concept under automatic thinking with schemas that had shown relevance to the Amadou Diallo case study, such as, accessibility. Accessibility is the ease with which schemas can be brought to one’s mind (Taylor, Peplau, Sears, 2006). The four police officers had practiced accessibility when they saw Diallo ran up the outside steps toward his apartment house doorway at their approach, ignoring their orders to stop and â€Å"show his hands†. When they saw Diallo ran after they claimed to have identified themselves as NYPD officers, they might assume that Diallo was the serial rapist they were searching for, as logically a serial rapist or a criminal would ran when approached by police officers to avoid getting caught. The ease of the thought that criminals would run when they spotted police officers, had made the four police officers to identified Diallo as a criminal, although that was not the truth in Diallo’s case. As a result, a firestorm had unfortunately occurred. Furthermore, the four police officers had practice priming in this case study. Priming is the process which related to recent experience that made schemas or concept to come to one’s mind more readily (Taylor, Peplau, Sears, 2006). For example, when Officer MeMellon fell down the steps, appearing to be spot, the other three officers might assume that Diallow had fire a gunshot towards Officer McMellon hence causing him to fell down those steps because they had linked it to their recent experiences of gunshot and thought that Officer McMellon had been spot and that Diallo had shot him with his gun. As one would logically fall back when shot. Perseverance effect was also shown in this case study. Perseverance effect is known as the tendency for people’s beliefs about themselves and their world to persist even when those beliefs are discredited (Taylor, Peplau, Sears, 2006). When the four NYDP officers thought Diallo matched the description of a (since-captured) serial rapist, it might be due to the fact that Amadou Diallo was an immigrant to the United States and the four police officers could have the belief that immigrants are the major causal crime increment in the Unites States. Hence resulting the police officers to think the worse out of Diallo when he ran and even though he was reaching into his jacket to get his wallet, the police officers had persisted that the square object had been of a firearm although in logical terms both wallet and gun do not share the same shape and size. On the other hand, people also tend to use mental strategies and shortcuts to organize and make sense of their social world, especially when they are lack of full processing time, lack of solid information to use for decision making, information overload, or when the issues are not important to them (Taylor, Peplau, Sears, 2006). Mental strategies and shortcuts help people to make decisions easier and allow them to get on with their lives and not turn every decision into a major hurdle. Four NYDP officers had practise judgmental heuristics when they made judgments about Diallo. Police officers thought Diallo had matched the description of a (since-captured) serial rapist. This might be because that Diallo was a dark skin immigrant which had logically matched the description of the serial rapist leading officers to made a quick decision so that they do not need analyse in detailed and make a major hold-up over the matter. Furthermore, the four police officers also did performed availability heuristic in this case. Availability heuristic is a mental rule of thumb whereby people base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring something to their mind (Taylor, Peplau, Sears, 2006). During the incident, Diallo had been mistaken that he was reaching into his jacket to get his firearm whereas he was actually reaching to get his wallet. Officer Carroll had shouted â€Å"Gun! † to his colleagues. His judgment might be due to his ease with which he can bring to his mind, which in this case, was automatically thinking that Diallo’s wallet was a gun, hence warned his colleagues about the matter. Attitude heuristic is the determination of what is â€Å"true† based upon an individual’s feelings towards or for a matter (Taylor, Peplau, Sears, 2006). The four police officers also had carried out attitude heuristic towards Amadou Diallo. For example, these police officers might dislike Diallo because he was an immigrant or ‘black’ person therefore assuming that Diallo’s intention, plan, or doings would also be bad too. This caused Diallo to be misinterpreted to be a criminal trying to escape from police detention rather than his true intention, which was believed to initially intend to show the NYPD officers his identification card in his wallet before he wrongly shot. Besides theories and concept of automatic thinking with schemas, the Amadou Diallo case had also displayed a few relevant theories of social perception. During the incident, the four police officers had displayed the attribution theory. Attribution theory is a description of the way which people explain the causes of their own and other people’s behavior (Taylor, Peplau, Sears, 2006). It is because that Diallo had run up the outside steps of his apartment after they claimed to identified themselves as NYPD officers, and that he had reached into his jacket, the police officers have made a cause and effect explanation towards Diallo’s behavior hence assuming that he was a criminal or the serial rapist they were searching for, therefore Diallo had run up in the attempt to escape and when he reached into his jacket for his wallet, they thought that he was reaching for his gun to defend himself. Due to this theory, it made sense of he reason four police officers have assumed that Diallo was a criminal and they had to fire back Diallo. All this might be due to the attachment of meaning they decode from Diallo’s nonverbal behavior. In addition, the fundamental attribution error was also shown in the incident when the four police officers have focus on Diallo’s action to run and reached into his jacket, rather than the situation causes of his action, which was intending to reached into his jacket to get his wallet to show the police officers that he was innocent when he was approached by the police officers and asked to â€Å"show his hands†. Fundamental attribution error is known as the tendency to overestimate the extent to which a person’s behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors, one reason people make fundamental attribution error is because the observer only put their attention on the actor, while ignoring the situational causes of the actor’s behavior (Taylor, Peplau, Sears, 2006). Furthermore, Diallo had also displayed the spotlight effect in this case study. The spotlight effect is the tendency to overestimate the extent to which our actions and appearance are salient or clear to others (Taylor, Peplau, Sears, 2006). When Diallo had reached into his jacket to get his wallet, he might had assumed that the NYPD officers know or understand what he was doing, which in his case, was the probability to take out his wallet and show them he was not the criminal or man they were searching for. However, the four police officers were not aware of his action hence assumed that he has a gun, hence fired at Diallo. Moreover, police officers had also displayed the aggression objects as cues concept during the shooting event. Aggression objects as cue is an aggressive stimulus that act as an object that is associated with aggressive response, and whose mere presence can increase the probability of aggression (Taylor, Peplau, Sears, 2006). The aggressive stimulus in this Diallo case is the guns that the police officers possessed. When the police officers had encountered a threatening or violent stimulus, they were more likely to â€Å"shoot† regardless of what stimulus actually appeared (Baumann Desteno, 2010). Due to the possession of firearms, the four police officers had the higher possibilities to response aggressively towards Diallo, hence the gun act as the object that associated with their aggressive response. Without the firearms that the four police officers possessed, the act of aggression towards Diallo would decrease therefore the firestorm would not have happened. According to Correll et al. (2002), it was found that participants’ performance shown difference regarding race of the targeted person. When a decision making process was time limited, participants had made more errors shooting unarmed African American targets than unarmed White targets. Whereas, participants had made more errors not shooting armed White targets than armed African American targets. In other words, participants were more likely made errors evaluating African American targets as threatening compared to White targets. This means that because Diallo was a ‘black’ immigrant, it increases his rate of being shot. This is an act of stereotype as because Diallo was a ‘black’ immigrant, they assumed that he might be a criminal, hence the police officers thereby increasing the likelihoods for certain interpretations and ensuing actions during the crucial moment, resulting them to mistaken Diallo’s wallet as a gun, hence shot him. In another words, it is like the Arabs possess guns, resulting in more frequent mistaken â€Å"shootings† of Arab men within the context of the shooter bias paradigm (Unkelbach, Forgas, Denson, 2008). There are also group prejudices that had been displayed in the Amadou Diallo case study. The four police officers had shown prejudice against Diallo because he was a dark-skin immigrant, hence they have ordered him to stop and â€Å"show his hands† without confirming whether he was the serial rapist they were searching for. Seeing the suspect holding a small square object, Officer Carroll yelled Gun! to alert his colleagues, believing that Diallo had aimed a gun at them at close range, the officers opened fire on Diallo. Diallo was a West African immigrant with no criminal record (Cooper, 1999). It was clearly shown the act of prejudice towards Diallo, whom was misunderstood or misinterpreted just because of his race. Furthermore, discrimination was shown in the Amadou Diallo case when the four NYPD officers had opened fire to shoot Diallo without proper investigation on his identity and the square object that he was holding during the incident. The action carried out by the four police officers was unjustified and harmful towards Diallo because he was a West American immigrant in the United States. Finally, illusory correlation was also shown in the Amadou Diallo case. An illusory correlation is the tendency to see relationships, or correlations, between events that are actually unrelated (Taylor, Peplau, Sears, 2006). When Diallo ran up the outside steps of his apartment and pulled out his wallet, the police officers had correlated his action to a criminal’s doing hence leading them to assume that he was a criminal ready to open fire at them in short range. These two events are distinctive and hardly correlated. Because Diallo was a West African immigrant, therefore the police officers correlated the two events together, causing Diallo his innocent life.

Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District Essay -- Church State Argumen

In cases having to do with constitutionality, the issue of the separation of church and state arises with marked frequency. This battle, which has raged since the nation?s founding, touches the very heart of the United States public, and pits two of the country's most important influences of public opinion against one another. Although some material containing religious content has found its way into many of the nation's public schools, its inclusion stems from its contextual and historical importance, which is heavily supported by material evidence and documentation. It often results from a teacher?s own decision, rather than from a decision handed down from above by a higher power. The proposal of the Dover Area School District to include instruction of intelligent design in biology classes violates the United States Constitution by promoting an excessive religious presence in public schools. The Dover Area School District of Dover, Pennsylvania is seeking approval from the General Assembly of Pennsylvania House to include the theory of intelligent design in the instruction of biology. Intelligent design, also known as I.D., is a theory that seeks to refute the widely-accepted and scientifically-supported evolution theory. It proposes that the complexity of living things and all of their functioning parts hints at the role of an unspecified source of intelligence in their creation (Orr). For all intents and purposes, the evidence cited by I.D. supporters consists only of the holes or missing links in evolutionary theory; it is a widely-debate proposal, not because ?of the significant weight of its evidence,? but because ?of the implications of its evidence? (IDnet). House Bill No. 1007?the bill in question?propos... ...20Biology%20Curriculum--011005.pdf ?Dover Area School District Biology I Planned Instruction/ Curriculum Guide.? Dover Area School District. http://www.dover.k12.pa.us/3598_7352811954/lib/3598_7352811954/Biology%20Curriculum.pdf ?Edwards v. Aguillard, 482 U.S. 578.? Pepperdine University School of Public Policy. 1987. http://publicpolicy.pepperdine.edu/academics/faculty/lloyd/projects/conlaw/ed_v_ag.htm ?House Bill No.1007.? The General Assembly of Pennsylvania. 2005. http://www2.legis.state.pa.us/WU01/LI/BI/BT/2005/0/HB1007P1153.pdf ?Lemon v. Kurtzmann 403 U.S. 602.? FindLaw for Legal Professionals. 1971. http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=403&invol=602 ?Walz v. Tax Commission of City of New York, 397 U.S. 664.? FindLaw for Legal Professionals. 1970. http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=397&invol=664

American Politics in the Context of Obama’s Election and First 100 Days Essay

The election of Barack Hussein Obama as the 44th President of the United States is a watershed in the history of American politics. In a country were blacks were once prohibited from voting just because of the color of their skin, his ascent into the White House is indeed a milestone. Obama’s victory is often attributed to several factors, including changes in voting behavior and public opinion and constant media exposure. Popular support of his regime did not end with the election hype – a 2009 Associated Press-GfK poll revealed that about 48% of Americans were satisfied with the economic outcomes of the Obama presidency’s first 100 days (Philstar. com n. pag. ). The rise of the Obama regime had a tremendous impact on American politics. It brought about the prospect of women and minorities gaining a greater voice in political institutions. But Obama’s first 100 days in office told a different story. His first 100 days revealed that the substance of his regime remained largely the same as that of George W. Bush’s. This just goes to show that in the context of Obama’s election and first 100 days, American politics changed its style but retained its hegemonic and elitist nature. Winning the nomination proved to be a greater challenge for Obama than winning the general elections. Because of a national political machine attached to her and her husband, Hillary Clinton was initially chosen by the Democrat Party to become its presidential candidate (Ceaser, Busch and Pitney 15). Although Obama was young, charismatic, cerebral and self-assured, the Democrats were apprehensive about his lack of experience in the political scene (Ceaser, Busch and Pitney 16). This weakness would probably not sit well with the American electorate, who were desperate for a leader who could rectify the damaging mistakes of the Republican administration (Ceaser, Busch and Pitney 15). But shifts in the economic and demographic profile of American voters rendered Obama a more suitable presidential candidate than Clinton. As of 2004, about 56. 6% of American voters were below 30 years old (Dahl n. pag. ). Majority of these individuals grew up using the Internet as an indispensable tool for work, study and leisure. When the Clintons staged their last national campaign in 1996, the Internet was just a fledgling industry. Obama’s youth and tech savvy (he kept a Blackberry with him at all times), therefore, would make him more appealing to the aforementioned voter’s age group than Clinton (Ceaser, Busch and Pitney 106). Obama must have been aware of these advantages of his – his election campaign involved mainly the utilization of the Internet. By April 2007, he already had 1,543,000 â€Å"friends† in his account in the social-networking website MySpace. com. In sharp contrast, Clinton only had 41,500 people in her network (Dupuis and Boeckelman 123). In the spring of 2008, Obama had at least 1 million â€Å"friends† in Twitter, while Clinton only had 330,000. Although they had the same number of Facebook â€Å"friends† during this period, the website’s largest pro-Obama group had over 500,000 members, while the largest Facebook group that supported Clinton only had 30,000 members (Tapscott 252). Furthermore, Obama’s rhetoric reflected the American public’s disillusionment with traditional political ideologies. His slogan, â€Å"Change You Can Believe In,† appealed to voters because it did not bombard them with highfaluting dogmas. Rather, it showed them that â€Å"change† meant exploring for new solutions to problems. The American people did not have to make do with traditional solutions which Obama believed have already failed them in the past. For instance, he is constantly criticized for his relative youth and limited high-level government inexperience. Obama downplayed this attack by claiming that â€Å"Dick Cheney and Donald Rumsfeld have an awful lot of experience, and yet have engineered what I think is one of the biggest foreign policy failures in our recent history† (Dupuis and Boeckelman 123). Through this argument, he pointed out that adherence to convention is not always the best for the nation. There are instances when the government and the people must work together and come up with new solutions. In addition, Obama created a firm connection between himself and the people by letting them know that he also underwent their plights. In his campaign speeches, he often used his experience as the son of a working woman and as the husband of a working woman in order to show to the people that he knew how it felt to be in their shoes (Leanne 52). He knew how it was to be poor, marginalized and to work hard just to keep ends meet. Thus, his cynicism towards conventional ideologies – he and so many other Americans remained impoverished despite their application. Given such a populist and down-to-earth campaign strategy, it was no longer surprising if Obama won a landslide victory in the 2008 national elections. But his first 100 days in office revealed that his regime was essentially the same as that of George W. Bush’s. Obama’s first 100 days revealed the â€Å"right-wing character of his administration and the class interests that it serves† (Eley n. pag. ). If there was any difference at all, it was the approach – Bush assumed a warmonger-like stance to obtain the presidency, while Obama adopted a populist one. Obama continued the Bush administration’s militarist and aggressive foreign policy. Although he promised that he will all American troops out of Iraq, troop levels in Iraq remained virtually unchanged. Furthermore, Obama expanded the war in Afghanistan and even extended it to Pakistan. Worse, he proposed a defense budget worth $664 billion – believed to be the largest appropriation for military spending in American history (Eley n. pag. ). The prison camp at Guantanamo Bay remains open, despite Obama’s pledge to eventually close it down. As a result, its inmates are at risk of being shipped to US military prisons such as those in Iraq and Afghanistan, where they can be tortured and or killed in secret. Under the guise of â€Å"moving on,† he blocked all investigations and or criminal prosecution of parties that were responsible for the torture of detainees in US military prisons across the world. Obama’s government also intervened in the procedures of several court cases in order to deny habeas corpus to detainees in US military prisons in Afghanistan (Eley n. pag. ). While Obama was busy perpetuating Bush’s foreign policy, the American economy further deteriorated. Mounting layoffs took place, along with wage cuts, home foreclosures and depreciation of real estate value and retirement savings. These developments, in turn, resulted in escalating hunger and homelessness. But instead of creating concrete solutions to put an end to these calamities, the Obama administration used billions of dollars in public funds to bail financial institutions such as AIG, Lehman Brothers and Merrill Lynch out of bankruptcy. Worsening the situation was that these banks were discovered to have been doling out huge portions of the bailout money to their executives as â€Å"bonuses† (Eley n. pag. ). It is very ironic that Obama, a black man who experienced growing up poor and marginalized, would end up perpetuating the repressive and anti-poor policies of his predecessor. But what Obama did reflected the recourse that the US most probably resorted to in order to steer itself from the economic crisis – tighten its grip over the Third World. It is during the current economic crisis that the US needs unlimited access to the natural resources of the Third World more than ever before. Thus, the Obama administration’s promise of â€Å"change† was replaced with the de facto continuation of the Bush regime. Works Cited â€Å"AP Poll: After Obama’s 100 Days, US on Right Track. † 24 April 2009. Philstar. com. 4 May 2009 . Ceaser, James W. , Andrew E. Busch, and John J. Pitney. Epic Journey: The 2008 Elections and American Politics. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009. Dahl, Melissa. â€Å"Youth Vote May have been Key in Obama’s Win. † 5 November 2008. MSNBC. 4 May 2009 . Dupuis, Martin, and Keith Boeckelman. Barack Obama: The New Face of American Politics. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008. Eley, Tom. â€Å"Obama’s 100 Days. † 29 April 2009. GlobalResearch. ca. 4 May 2009 . Leanne, Shel. Say It Like Obama: The Power of Speaking with Purpose and Vision. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2008. Tapscott, Don. Grown Up Digital: How the Net Generation is changing Your World. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2008.

Literature Review about Investors Behavior Toward Stocks Splits

A share split is an action taken by corporate executives to increase the number of outstanding shares by dividing each share by a given split ratio that diminishes its price. In this case, the stock market capitalization does not change since the price per share reduces by the ratio of the share split. For instance, if a company splits its shares in the ratio of two shares for each one share held, the share holders will enjoy an increased numbers of shares nut at a reduced price thus the overall market capitalization remains unchanged. Stock splits are not a new term in world stock exchanges, many company have adopted the policy for a couple of reasons all geared towards increasing the marketability of its shares. Equity bank, for instance, one of the leading micro finance institutions in the world, incorporated in Kenya recently split its shares in a ratio of 10-1 giving the shares a lot of liquidity and marketability. In finance, investors are said to be rational decision makers and would try to maximize the returns to their investments by whatever means, given several constrains. Their response to share splits thus depends on several factors as explained below. Information available-financial information is critical in making investment decisions. The amount of information that investors have thus informed their response to proposed share splits.   If investors have adequate advance information concerning the share split, future investment projects by the company among other relevant information. They are likely to respond quickly to share splits. Nature of investors there are several types of investors in the stock exchange. The broadest categories of investors in the market are the long term investors and speculators. Long term investors may not quickly respond with the same gusto as the speculators who would want to make a quick kill from the investment opportunity after the shares become more affordable. Usually, such speculators are small investors who do not have enough capital to invest in expensive stocks but prefer the cheap and affordable investments. Economic situation although share splits happen in companies that are doing well, investors may be quite skeptical about purchasing stocks if they foresee a gloomy economic future. Investors buy shares if they anticipate a rise in the share prices, with a depressed economic situation, the possible share price increase may be overshadowed. Reverse split is the opposite of a share split. In some stock markets, there is a required minimum share price. If the companies share prices dip below the required share prices of that particular company, the share holders may be advised to consolidate their share holding, a term referred to as reverse split. There are several reasons why companies prefer to split their shares. The decision to split share in a company is informed by the behavior of investors towards a share split. This article thus explores the behavior of investors towards a share split and the impacts of the split on the investor’s earnings. Most traders view a stock split as a very crucial investment opportunity with great potential to increase their wealth. They consider share splits as a positive step in value and good will of the company, share splits thus psychologically makes investors feel wealthier. In some cases, some investors take stock splits as dividends oblivious of the reality in terms of the impact of such splits on price and market capitalization of the company’s shares. Critics however, argue that stock splits only make since in accounting and are quite irrelevant in real life since they do not affect performance of the shares. They actually think that shareholders would be stupid to believe that their wealth has increased as a result of a stock split (Shiller, Robert 1981), Empirical studies have however confirmed that increased market activity as a following a share split is justified. In 1996, a study by David Ikennbery of Rise University in Hong Kong measuring the long term and short-term effects of a stock split on the performance of the company company’s securities. His research findings indicated that 1275 companies that had split their share between 1975-1990 performed 8% better than their similar counterparts who had not split their shares in the first year and about 16% better in the subsequent three years. In 2003, the same researcher updated his research but this time included splits of 2-1, 3-1, and 4-1 and found that the results from this study were very similar with his original findings. He found that the companies that had split their share in the ratios above reported better results compared to those stocks that were not split, in the first year following the split and about 12% better than their counterparts in the following three years. In another research carried out in China and published in 2005, although stock splits appear purely cosmetic, there is ample empirical evidence that they are associated with abnormal returns. Theoretically, there are several reasons that explain the behavior of investors in case of a share split. This reason rotate on the fact that a share split increases the number of shares held by the shareholders and at the same time reduces the price of the shares thus making them more affordable. One, stock splits announcement raises attention to a company’s perceived success. This is because, for a company to split its shares, they must be trading at a price above the market and industry average. Such high prices result from the company’s success leading to high prices for its shares. If a company is perceived to be successful, investors would like town stocks in that company with the intention of benefiting from the capital gains expected in the long run. Investors thus respond very quickly to the announcement of a share split with the hope of making more money as the share prices go up. The reduced price per share after this split of the shares often attracts many investors since the smaller investors can now afford to purchase the company’s stocks at the reduced prices. The increased activity at the stock exchange usually makes the company’s prices to increase. Such an increase in the prices of the company stocks is a benefit to the well positioned investors who purchase their stocks at the announcement of the split. Some company’s share prices are very high to the extend that low income earners are not able to afford. With the lowered prices as a result of share splits, many investors will buy stocks at the affordable rates. Life cycle of a share split The behavior of investors towards a share split can also be analyzed using the lifecycle of a share split. Investors in the stock market behave differently at the different stages of the life cycle and thus it’s important to understand this lifecycle as an investor. Such an analysis also gives hints on the best time for one to invest in the stock market following a share split. Pre-announcement During this stage, there is not much fanfare in the stock market after a long period of healthy growth. In many cases however, emergence into this stage occurs quickly as unexpected gains cause a rapid increase in the prices of the stocks. Significant changes in price are thus witnessed at this stage. To make a good profit during this stage, it’s important that one identifies the stocks that will most likely be split and when they will be split. Investor behavior at this stage is unpredictable since investors do not have perfect information about the split and they only carry on their business as usual although sometimes there are indicators that may lead investors to anticipate such splits such as abnormally high prices per share. Announcement The upbeat atmosphere of the share split usually pulls investors in large numbers to buy shares at the reduced prices. The influx of traders in the market leads to an increase in the stock prices and this gives exceptional advantage to those investors who are well positioned before the announcement since they can sell their securities at the increased prices and make capital gains or simply wait and receive higher dividends I the future. For those investors who were initially not in the company, this period usually offers a low risk set up for timing short term trading entries. It is at this time that speculators get in and buy shares only to sell them in the near future immediately the prices look up (Simon, Herbert 1947). Dormancy period In this period, there is a return to normalcy in prices and behavior in the weeks following the announcement of the split s the initial interest subsides. The shorter this time interim, the less subdued this stage will be. Pre split run For many stocks, this is the most powerful phase of the share split cycle as investors are busy bidding up the prices of the limited stock supply. The prices are still high pending the speculators mass shift from the stock exchange. Shiller, Robert 1981) Post split run Here, the investor’s excitement after the share split is begins to fade. This stage is characterized by a retreat in the price of the share as speculators are actively selling their securities in the short run. The increased supply of the securities drives the prices down thus as the speculators exit the market. This is believed to be the best time for the long term investors to buy the securities at the reduced prices and profit fro the capital gains I the future after the prices stabilize. The above analysis indicates that the behavior of investors towards a share split will depend on the particular stage n the share split life cycle. Investors consider the price of the share and the potential future earnings in making their decisions on investment. Although practitioners like ( Bakerand Gallagher, (1980; Baker and Powel,1993) suggest that marketability of the stocks is the primary motivation for stock splits, fewer papers have shown interest in this possibility. Academic research on common stocks has however found some support for marketability hypothesis. For instance, (Lamoureux and Poon 1987) and Maloney and Mulherin 1992) confirm that the number of share holders in a company increases following a stock split. A Schultz 1999) shows that the number of small investors increases following a share split and majority of these new investments are new buys. According to empirical studies, Managers report that the main report that the major factor that contributes to stock split is to move the price of the stocks to a better and desirable trading range. The trading range for most stocks in the United States is 20-35 USD (Baker, Phillips and Powell 1995) in a review article on splits. Stock splits have been a common feature in the Newyork stock exchange. Of the listed stocks in the market at the end of 1930, almost 20% split at least once in the prior 10 years. Over a half a century later, 5-10% of all the listed companies announced a stock. The stock prices I this stock exchange have been quite stable for quite a long time, averaging between $30 to $40. Over the last half a century, the average Newyork Stock Exchange has stayed in the dollar range despite the remarkable increases in consumer prices and corporate equity values. This constancy in the price levels has been partly attributed to the frequent share splits. Some companies however, such as Berkshire Hathaway and Google, though have very high share prices averaging about 100,000 and 500USD respectively have not had share splits in their history. Another interpretation of investor behavior is that investors and analysts have no preferred price but simply adapt from the firms past split behaviors. Pilotte and Manuel (1996) for instance, provide evidence that the firms post split earnings performance to make inferences about a newly announced share split. If managers assume an optimal price for the splits and their stocks maintain that particular price level, investors can be seen to infer the manager’s private information based on announced split price and respond to that information. A lot of research a lot has been found to support these claims even if the motivation for that belief is less clear (e.g. Baker and Powell, 1993). Financial theories advanced to explain stock splits rely primarily on two attributes. The information flows between investors and managers and transaction costs as financial intermediaries and investors interact. Theories focusing on interactions between investors and intermediaries investigate the idea that share splits adjust prices to a level that redues the transaction costs and at the same time increases the investor trading opportunities. At this level, investors will find the securities to be more attractive and will move in to purchase more shares thus increasing the liquidity of the shares in the stock market. Summary and conclusion As mentioned earlier, share splits can also be reversed by the managers of the company. It is done when management intends to place the shares in an attractive range. Decisions to consolidate shares is either discretionary or non discretionary. Management may decide to improve the company’s image by consolidating the company’s shares if they are selling at an abnormally low price. This increases the marketability and demand for the shares. This is because investors’ view too low share prices as being speculative. Management may also consolidate the company’s shares to attract institutional investors. Such investors make huge share purchases and invest with along term perspective. For management to attract such investors, the share prices must be attractive. Reducing the number of outstanding shares also has an effect on the earnings per share attributable to the existing share holders. Since earning per share is computed as after tax profit for the company divided by the number of ordinary share holders, reducing the number of ordinary share shares will have a positive impact on the share holder earnings. In some stock exchange markets however, firms are supposed to maintain a given level of price per share. Incase a firms share price drops below this level required, then the company has no option but to consolidate its shares. This phenomenon is called non-discretionary reverse split. A lot of research has been directed towards the behavior of investors towards stock splits. Findings from most of the researches’ indicate that there is positive correlation between stock splits and investor response to the markets activities. Empirical research indicates that companies that have split their shares have reported better performance than their counterparts who have not split their shares. Many researchers have backed these findings with empirical evidence that indicate that such companies perform better by over 8% while others dismiss such claims as very cosmetic and baseless. They believe that stock splits do not alter the wealth of the share holders since there is no real change in the market capitalization. They argue that investors are stupid enough to believe that the increased number of shares as a result of a share split improves their wealth. They argue that such believe is not true and only in the investors psychology (Fama, Eugene 1965). Other researchers on the other hand have proven that the lowered prices after the share split induces small investors to purchase more shares since they become affordable after the share split. The increased attention towards the company after the announcement of the share split by investors leads to the appreciation of the company’s stocks prices. This creates value to the share holders through capital gains or future dividends in the long run. A lot of opportunities for empirical research however, exist on the benefits of a share split on the companies shares. It’s also important that share holders and investors have clears information on the impacts of the pre and post split effects on their future earning. In making investment decisions after a share split announcement, investors should understand the implications of the share split on the various financial ratios such as the dividend per share, dividend yield, price earning ratio, market price per share amongst other relevant information. This area presents a good opportunity for researchers to explore all the information pertaining to the share split so that investors can be able to make informed decisions on the timing, impact and magnitude of their investments before and after a share split announcement. References Barber, Brad, and Terrance Odean. Too Many Cooks Spoil the Profits: Investment Club Performance,† Financial Analysts Journal.2004. vol. 56, no. 1 (January/February), 17-25. Chen, Joseph, Harrison Hong, and Jeremy Stein (2000), â€Å"Forecasting Crashes: Trading Volume, Past Returns and Conditional Skewness in Stock Prices,† NBER Working Paper No. 7687 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: National Bureau of Economic Research). 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